A.1 What is a bog?

A bog is a unique type of wetland. “Wetlands are lands that are seasonally or permanently covered by shallow water, or land where the water table is close to or at the surface” (Environment Canada, 2002, p.1). There are four main types of wetlands: fens, marshes, swamps and bogs. Bog is a Celtic word for something soft and moist (The New Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 1989). Bogs are acidic, peat-filled wetlands fed by rain, snow or fog.  They are found everywhere in the world except Antarctica. Bogs are characterized by Sphagnum Moss  – a moss with a special ability.  It can absorb calcium ions and secrete hydrogen ions that help create an acidic environment (Stephenson, 1984). Only a select group of plants can tolerate these harsh conditions. In Canada, they typically include Labrador Tea, Bog Laurel, Bog Rosemary, Round-leafed Sundew, Cloudberries, cranberries and blueberries and sometimes trees like Shore Pines.

A.2 How are bogs formed?

Three main conditions are required to form a bog: moisture that is low in nutrients such as rainwater, a sterile surface and poor drainage. Most bogs in Canada were formed at the end of the last ice age 5,000 to 10,000 years ago. As the glaciers retreated, water collected in depressions and slowly filled with plants. Eventually these plants died but only partially decomposed because the stagnant water they were growing in was low in oxygen levels, hindering their breakdown. The plants became peat which is highly compressed, undecayed vegetable matter (Stephenson, 1984, p. 27). This created favorable conditions for Sphagnum moss to colonize.  Once established, Sphagnum can grow and dominate the landscape. The result is a bog.  Eventually Sphagnum moss will die and create peat moss. Sphagnum bogs are considered a climax community for they are self-perpetuating as long as the environment remains constant (i.e. water and nutrient levels.)

Bogs are also known as mires, moors, heaths, muskeg and peatlands.  About 76% of Canada’s wetlands are classified as peatlands (Daigle and Gautreau-Daigle, 2001).  In order to be classified as such, peatlands must have a minimum accumulation of 40 centimetres of peat.

A. 3 The Global Issue 

The global issue facing bogs is their destruction or alteration through development. Over 50% of the earth’s wetlands are bog ecosystems and they are threatened (International Mire Conservation Group, 1984). Peatlands comprise nearly 8% of the world’s land surface amounting to some 400 million hectares across the five continents (Irish Peatland Conservation Council, 2002).  They are the targets of development for agriculture, forestry, horticulture, fuel and other commercial ventures around the world.  On a global scale, all natural bogs have been eliminated in the Netherlands and Poland.  Switzerland and Germany each have only 500 hectares of remaining bogs. In the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, nearly 90% of the peatlands have been destroyed (Irish Peatland Conservation Council, 2002).

Agriculture has greatly affected peatlands.  Millions of hectares have been drained and converted into farms around the world. Much of the land in the United Kingdom that is currently used for agriculture was once peatland. In other parts of the world peatlands have been converted to pastures for grazing animals or fields for rice paddies. Canada alone has altered thousands of hectares of peatland to produce market gardens as well as blueberry and cranberry farms. British Columbia is the world’s third largest producer of cranberries, after Massachusetts and Wisconsin.  Berries are grown in Richmond, Pitt Meadows and Langley.  Growers produce about 17 million kilograms of berries a year, valued at nearly 25 million dollars (Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, 2003). Most berries are grown for the American Co-operative Ocean Spray. The environmental cost of creating a cranberry farm is enormous. It begins with the artificial dyking of peatland, filling in the peat with soil, planting a monoculture of domestic cranberries and spraying them with pesticides.  Once a crop is ready for harvest, water is diverted from the Fraser River to flood the fields, altering the hydrology of the bog.  Berries are beaten off of the vines enabling them to float to the surface.  Then they are gathered with booms and scooped onto a conveyor belt into crates destined for the juice market down south. One of the common complaints that people living in Richmond make is that there are no fresh berries available at Thanksgiving. This is because most of the berries have been sent south of the border to be made into juice.

Commercial forestry operations have also resulted in peatland destruction.  Over one third of Finland’s peatlands have been drained to facilitate tree harvesting (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 2001). In Malaysia, large tracts of peatlands are being burned in order to plant trees for the forest industry. In Canada, nearly 25,000 hectares of peatlands have been partially drained to facilitate forest operations (Daigle & Gautreau-Daigle, 2001).

The use of peat for horticulture is of worldwide concern. It is used as a soil supplement to enhance water retention and plant growth and as a soil base for greenhouse production. To harvest a bog for peat moss, it must first be drained, dried and then cut. The resulting fields can be too dry for Sphagnum to regenerate and even if the water level returns to normal, it can take years for bogs to return to their former state.  Technically peat moss could be referred to as a renewable resource if one is willing to wait thousands of years for the resource to be renewed.  Canada ranks second in the global production of horticultural peat after Germany.  Canada currently produces 22% of the world’s horticultural peat with a market value of 170 million dollars. Of Canada’s 113 million hectares of peatlands, 17,000 hectares are  being used for peat harvesting, employing about 1600 rural workers (Daigle and Gautreau-Daigle, 2001). Mining peat for fuel is another issue facing bogs. Ireland has depleted nearly 90% of its peatland as a result of peat mining for fuel in addition to draining for agriculture (Irish Peatland Conservation Council, 2001). In the United Kingdom the statistics are equally grim and Eastern Europe is aggressively mining peat to provide a source of home heating, as well as fuel for power plants.  In addition to these threats, peat is being used in alcoholic drinks, environmental improvements and purification systems, oil spill clean ups, spa therapies, medicines and pads (Statement on the Wise Use of Peatlands, 2002). 

Loss of biodiversity is a direct result of the destruction or alteration of bogs. Populations of plants and animals can disappear. Rare and endangered species in Canada that use peatlands include Whooping Cranes, Piping Plovers, Trumpeter Swans and Wood Bison. Many plants can only live in bogs and will not be found in any other ecosystem. . These include insect-eating plants such as sundews and pitcher plants.  They occupy a niche that few other species are suited to. 

A.4 Why conserve Bogs?

Over 50% of the earth’s wetlands are bogs.  They have been called the lungs and kidneys of the earth (Beautiful British Columbia, 1995).  They provide carbon sinks to help purify the air and collect and filter water, thereby reducing the risk of floods.  They contain about 25% of all the world’s soil carbon which amounts to somewhere between 44% and 70% of carbon stored in biotic systems (Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 2000).  These figures represent about four times the amount of carbon stored in the tropical rainforest.  Drainage and destruction of bogs result in the rapid loss of stored carbon in the form of greenhouse gases - carbon dioxide and methane. This contributes to global warming.

Bogs can  provide a vital link to the past.  The acidic and anaerobic conditions within a bog can preserve whatever falls into them. As a result they can provide a cultural and environmental archive dating back more than 10,000 years.  Bodies, pollen samples and artifacts dating back thousands of years have been discovered intact in bogs.  

 On a national level, bogs make up a significant percentage of the landmass of Canada.  Of the 997 million hectares of land in Canada, 113 million hectares of it are peatlands (Daigle & Gautreau-Daigle, 2001).  They form nearly 76% of Canada’s wetlands. In the lower mainland of British Columbia, Burns Bog covers close to 4000 hectares.

Bogs are simply beautiful green spaces. While they can enhance the gene pool by providing habitat for a unique variety of plants and animals, they enrich the quality of life on earth by simply existing.

A.5 International Hope

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands holds promise of an international organization that can help protect the world’s peatlands.  They are a lead partner with the United Nations Environment Progamme in the implementation of activities related to wetlands (Wetlands International, 2003). Ramsar’s mandate is the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. (The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 2003).  They assess and declare wetland sites of international significance. 

At the 6th Ramsar Convention in Australia in March 1996, attention was drawn to the issue of mire conservation. While peatlands represent more than 50% of all terrestrial and freshwater wetlands, only 6% of the land area protected under the Ramsar Convention was set aside because it was a mire ecosystem.  As a result, a resolution was drawn up making peatlands a higher priority for Ramsar.  More peatlands will be recognized internationally for their contributions to a healthy environment in the next few years.

By raising the international profile of peatlands, Ramsar has also elevated their importance to the United Nations Environment Programme.  Research into the importance of peatlands as carbon sinks has led the United Nations to view bogs as important players in climate change. The Kyoto Protocol calls upon countries to develop national programmes to slow climate change and to take climate change into account in a range of policies such as agriculture, transport and forestry (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2002). 

Indonesia provides an example of the a place where climate change meets bog. In 1997, fires in Indonesia’s peatlands released 2.6 billion tonnes of carbon into the air.  That is the equivalent to 40% of the global emissions from burning fossil fuels in 1997 (Pearce, 2002).  The conservation of bogs will thus play a crucial role in climate change.  The first step is recognizing their importance and interconnectedness to the world’s climate.

The International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) provides a source of hope through bog education and conservation.  This group was established in 1984 to promote the conservation of mires and their complete range of natural diversity throughout the world by ensuring their wise and sustainable use (IMCG, 1984). They identify global diversity of mire features, functions and values, reduce the most significant threats to mires and explore mechanisms to further their aims and sustain their achievement.  They facilitate worldwide exchange of information and expertise, assist co-ordination of efforts and resources, promote positive action and increase understanding and awareness and membership is free! A priority for the coming years is to support and further the Guidelines for Global Action on Peatlands as adopted by the Ramsar Convention.   IMCG is a partner in the Global Peatland Initiative, a platform programme which promotes, facilitates and finances projects for the wise use and conservation of peatlands. They publish newsletters, handbooks, organize international conferences and training sessions and inventory peatlands around the world. They provide information and resources on global concerns around mires.

SEA-PEAT is short for Southeast Asia Peatland Action Plan and Management  Initiative. They are members of the International Mire Conservation Group.  SEA-PEAT  is an information network that links individuals working on peat related areas.  Its objective is to develop a comprehensive action plan for the conservation and sustainable use of peatlands in Southeast Asia and share that information with interested parties. The 35-40 million hectares of peatland in Southeast Asia account for 60% of the world’s tropical peatlands and roughly one tenth of the entire extent of global peatland resources (SEAPEAT, 2002). It is only in its first phase which is developing partnerships. Its ultimate goal is the implementation of an action plan and establishment of demonstration projects.

The Irish Peatland Conservation Council (IPCC), a non-government organization, was formed in 1982 to conserve a representative sample of peatland types in Ireland.  IPCC participates in lobbying, education, publicity and fund-raising.  They have produced fact sheets and resource materials on bog with a global perspective. They have inventoried Ireland’s peatlands and have helped set aside some of the thousands of acres of bogs still left in the country.  They continue to lobby the Irish government, which promised to acquire 50,000 hectares of bog in 1987, but to date has only acquired 39,000 hectares (Irish Peatland Conservation Council. 2002).  While the government is slow in acquiring land, it is moving in the right direction with the pressure of the IPCC. 

A.6 National Hope

Nationally, the publication of Canadian Peat Harvesting and the Environment is a sign of hope. It is one of a series of Sustaining Wetlands Issues Papers published by the Secretariat to the North American Wetlands Conservation Council Committee.  Its objectives are to make Canadians more aware of the importance of the wise use and conservation of wetland ecosystems and their natural resource value. The report recognizes the value of bogs not only for peat but also as important natural areas for plants and animals.  The importance of bogs as carbon sinks is also discussed.  Wise management of peatlands must be considered if we are to honor the Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20% by the year 2012 (Canadian Peat Harvesting and the Environment, 2001-1). Currently there are 500 hectares of worked peat surfaces being restored in Canada.

Researchers from Laval University published the Peatland Restoration Guide in 1997.  The major partners sponsoring the project were the Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association and the Canadian Wildlife Service. This demonstrates a willingness of a corporation to partner with the government to develop strategies toward sustainable development. The purpose of the guide is to offer step by step advice on how to return peatlands that have been harvested for horticulture to an environment similar to what existed before harvesting (Quinty & Rochefort, 1997).  It is noble to try to return peatlands to viable habitats after they have been altered, but whether it can be done has yet to be proven over a long period of time.  There has been some success with study plots but the real problem seems to be one of hydrology.  If the water level has been altered to facilitate peat harvesting, it can be challenging to return it to the original level. Research is on-going in this area.

A. 7 Local Hope

Restoration projects are not limited to peat harvesting sites. Camosun Bog located in Pacific Spirit Park near the University of British Columbia is an example of a bog that is undergoing restoration in a park. The hydrology of the bog was altered when housing developments arose in the 1940s. As a result, parts of the bog were drying up and becoming forest.  A cooperative effort by Greater Vancouver Regional District Parks, University of British Columbia students and staff, Vancouver Natural History Society and Environmental Youth Corps demonstrate that groups working cooperatively can have a positive impact upon bogs. Data collected by UBC researchers provided the roadmap for restoration. After careful consultation with all groups, project managers decided to log the area of Hemlock trees, alter the water table and plant pockets of sphagnum moss.  There have been signs of success though restoration and monitoring is on going.  Sphagnum moss has returned with vigor in some areas while in others it has died out.  It is believed that the high water levels in winter drowned some patches of delicate, young, moss (Camosun Bog, 2003).  Experiments are being carried out to try and determine optimum water levels.  In addition to the restoration work, a boardwalk has been built to keep visitors from walking upon delicate plants. Residents from the area were polled on their feelings about the restoration and 85% supported the endeavor (Camosun Bog, 2003).

Burns Bog Conservation Society is an organization that deserves attention.  This 5000 member, registered charity has lobbied tirelessly to protect Burns Bog.  This 4000 hectare bog located in Delta, BC has been identified as the largest raised peat bog on the West Coast of North America (Forest.org, n.d.). The International Mire Conservation Group has noted it as a bog of international significance (IMCG, 1984). The reality of Burns Bog is that only 80 hectares are designated parkland.  The bog shares its land with the second largest dump in Canada and the rest is owned by private interests that want to develop the land (Forests.org).  Delta Fraser Properties Partnership owns 2,200 hectares and have entertained development proposals that have ranged from golf courses to industrial parks and even to a new home for the Pacific National Exhibition.

In 1999, with the persistent lobbying of Burns Bog Conservation Society, an ecosystem review was undertaken by the British Columbia Government and Delta Fraser Properties Partnership.  Its goal was to decide what was needed to preserve the ecological integrity of the bog. The review concluded that 2450 acres were needed  to maintain ecological integrity.   [to be updated.......]

Rithet’s Bog in Victoria parallels the story of Burns Bog.  It was grazed, ditched and drained for agricultural use.  It was even slated to become a golf course until interested citizens formed the Rithet’s Bog Conservation Society.  They forged partnerships with the Habitat Conservation Trust Fund, Fisheries and Oceans, the District of Saanich and Ducks Unlimited to secure a future for the wetland (Buffet, 2002). A water control structure was put in last year to maintain optimum water levels and tree removal is underway to allow bog plants to flourish. 

Richmond Nature Park provides a source of hope for bogs, especially those in urban areas.  This 200 acre park was set aside over 30 years ago by forward thinking citizens who wanted to conserve a piece of Richmond’s natural history.  At the time, a large portion of the land in Richmond was either farmland or undeveloped bog.  People must have wondered why groups like Kinsmen, Girl Guides, Boy Scouts, teachers and the Rod and Gun Club were setting aside parkland when land was so available.  This demonstrated a vision of green space for the future citizens of Richmond. Today Lulu Island has grown at an amazing rate and the 160,000 residents can enjoy the legacy of a “wild” park unparalleled in most urban centers.  Not only does this park offer an opportunity to learn about bogs but it also provides island habitat within an island for plants and animals to live.

Each year over 5600 attend school programs at the Richmond Nature Park.  These hands-on programs celebrate the plants and animals that are found in the bog. Children are encouraged to look, listen, touch, smell and even taste plants that are found in this unique habitat.  They are encouraged to bounce along the mossy trails and enjoy the wonder of bogs.  In addition to school programs, public events are held to celebrate the bog and its inhabitants, such as International Bog Day in July. 

A.8 Summary

Bogs face many challenges.  They are drained for development, used for fuel, agriculture, horticulture and forestry.   At the same time they are being researched and their value as carbon sinks, archival records of culture and the environment, filters of water and places of enormous biodiversity are becoming better known.

A balance must be sought between the survival of bogs and the development for land and resources. The links that bogs have to climate change and ground water health should unite the globe in concern about their future. The fact that organizations like the United Nations, Ramsar and International Mire Conservation Group are participating in conservation of peatlands is an important step.  Nationally and locally peatlands are being studied in Canada and efforts are being made to attempt to restore bogs affected by peat mining. Globally, people are more aware of bogs today than any time in the history of the world. We can only hope that awareness and education will lead to action that will help conserve bogs for the future.